Aristotle
'Aristotle's Life and Origins of ''The Politics Born 384 B.C. in Stagira in Macedon, the studies of Aristotle were all-encompassing, ranging from logic, metaphysics, and politics to physics, natural history, and the arts but above all Aristotle valued truth—truth as a product of observation and facts—which explains the disparity between Aristotle’s political theories and his associations. As a young man Aristotle attended the Academy of Athens under Plato and lived in Athens for the majority of his life thereafter. Yet Aristotle placed citizenship as a key element to achieving human excellence even though, as a foreigner living in Athens, he was denied citizenship. And while he famously served as the tutor of Alexander the Great, Aristotle viewed the polis ''as the ideal political structure and hegemony as counterintuitive to the ideal function of government. He arrived at these conclusions after founding the Lyceum at Athens where Aristotle dedicated part of his life to collecting constitutions from the multitude Hellenic city-states. And from these he derived the key elements which would form the basis of Aristotle’s ''The Politics, a treatise on the structure of the polis and the role of its sovereign and citizenry. '''The King, The Citizen, and The Knave Three key roles in the operation of politics can be generalized as such: the king, the sovereign power and governor over the governed; the citizen, members of the state who participate in the functions of government; and the knave, those who undermine civil order and disrupt government. The relationship between the king, the citizen, and the knave in Aristotle’s view is a reciprocal one where the virtues and deficiencies of one will promote the virtues and deficiencies of the others. A good sovereign should foster good citizens and choke out the knaves who would disrupt order, for example, while a poor or corrupt sovereign and empowered knaves will lead to poor, weak-minded citizenry. Each of these roles holds the capacity to act in the common good for the honor of the city and achieve Aristotle’s ideal of the “Good Life.” ''The King'' Monarchy is but one form of valid government according to Aristotle; therefore, for one to understand the role of the king in The Politics one must not confine one’s examination to kings alone but to any sovereign power which may rule over a state, whether they be monarchs, oligarchs, or the people. The sovereign under any conception should, above all, claim power through the consent of the people, for “kings rule according to law over voluntary subjects, but tyrants over involuntary” (III.14, 1285a28-29). As such, it is the natural duty of any sovereign to provide for the people and promote a Good Life because, in doing so, they will prevent revolution and the creation of knaves who undermine their rule and disrupt social order. This is achieved through the creation of good laws and the function of an effective justice system. Good laws encourage excellence amongst the citizens by setting standards while the justice system assures that they meet those standards. As such, Aristotle claims the best sort of kingship emerges where the king operates within the laws themselves, not above them, for the king—and, indeed, all governors—are considered citizens themselves. And a common trait of citizens is their equality amongst each other. When one is given undue power and ability to rule, the state descends into tyranny and is overrun by knaves. ''The Citizen'' While the definition of a citizen is difficult to ascertain, even for Aristotle, “a citizen in the strictest sense” is one whose “special characteristic is that he shares in the administration of justice, and in offices” (III.1, 1275a19-22). In this way the citizen contributes to government and plays a role in maintaining a healthy state, consenting to the rule of the sovereign and rooting out knaves while eschewing knavishness themselves. For example, in their role as jurymen, citizens assist in the administration of justice; for this role to be effective, citizens must be of a good moral disposition, fully capable of deciphering guilt from innocence and administering justice fairly. The same can be said of citizens who hold public office, directly participating in the functions of government, whether as magistrates or legislators. But in relation to the sovereign, it is the duty of the citizen to obey, for a citizen who obeys the law, provided that the laws themselves are good, promotes a healthy state. As well, in obeying the laws the citizens prevent themselves from descending into knavishness and from disrupting the operation of the state. Therefore, a citizen achieves excellence not only through virtue in their offices but also in obeying good law. ''The Knave'' According to Aristotle, the knave embodies any person who holds their own self-interest above the common good and shared interests of all people, disrupting the mechanism of government to do so. For example, the demagogues who lead and manipulate the people under democracies, claiming no power from the city’s constitution yet command the people regardless with cunning words and fear mongering. These knaves are the chief engineers of revolutions within democracies, causing unrest by “laying information against rich men until they compel them to combine…or coming forward in public stir up the people against them” (V.4, 1304b22-25) and in general render democracy one of the diseased forms of government. Indeed, the knave can embody itself in any diseased form of government, from oligarchs who claim statesmanship through property and wealth and use their position to promote that wealth at the cost of the citizenry to the tyrants who take power not through excellence and consent of the people but by brute force and fear. When these knaves come into power, they disrupt the natural order of government, depriving the state of the power to rule justly and the citizens of a Good Life. Thus, it is the elimination of knavishness rather than the knave himself that serves the common good and leads to a healthy state. 'Good Citizen and Good Human Being' Aristotle’s view of a good citizen is not what we as a modern society would consider one to be. Being a good citizen is more than just abiding by the laws of the state, and it is more than paying taxes. There are a few demanding guidelines to adhere to in order to be considered a good citizen, which only a selected few would be able to meet. However, a good citizen is determined by the constitution they live by, for this reason, there are many different kinds of good citizens. For example, a good citizen in a democracy is not a good citizen under a tyranny. However, the overall “salvation of the community is the common business of them all” (Aristotle, 65). In Aristotle’s eyes, a good citizen supports and honors the constitution. In the polis, a citizen’s relationship in the affairs of the city characterizes one’s identity in a huge extent; therefore, it is important for a citizen to support and honor the constitution. The citizen “who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of the state” (Aristotle, 63). Education is an immense factor along with wealth, which plays apart in determining a good citizen, for a good citizen must have time for leisure. For example, a laborer has no place in office because his primary focus is to work to provide for his family, which would not allow him enough time to focus on his political duty. Although he is contributing to his city by working, he cannot be a ruler because he is a subject. Thus, it is evident to “admit that we cannot consider all those to be citizens who are necessary to the existence of the state” (Aristotle, 68). {This section is important to understanding the differences between Aristotle and how we understand citizenship today in a liberal democracy, and your topic sentence sets up this topic. Do you prove your topic sentence with the rest of the paragraph? You say that Aristotle has the good citizen doing more than just obeying the laws, but then go into how being a good citizen for Aristotle involves obeying the laws/constitution of one's particular city. Think some more about the distinctions you are trying to make here.} The political power is reserved for the wealthy because they have the time, the education, and the money to preside in office. Although the majority of the people were poor in the city, their interests were ignored, because the power laid in the hands of the prosperous. “He should know how to govern like a freeman and how to obey like a freeman – these are the excellences of a citizen,” therefore the rulers must know to rule and to obey (Aristotle, 68). Unlike the citizen, a good human being is simpler because there is only one kind of good human being, whereas there can be many kinds of good citizens. A good human being strives for honor and virtue. He holds all virtues such as courage, wisdom, moderation, and justice. “Hence it is evident that the good citizen need not of necessity possess the excellence which makes a good man” (Aristotle, 65). For example, a politician may hold wisdom but may not hold moderation or courage, but the good human being has the courage to make sacrifices for his family above the concerns of the government. A citizen is motivated by the external factor of the constitution, while the good human being is motivated by the internal factors of virtue and honor, making him true to his values. In comparing the good citizen and the good human being, Aristotle states, “as to the question whether the excellence of the good man is the same as that of the good citizen, the consideration already adduced prove that in some states the good man and the good citizen are the same, and in others different,” depending on the form of government (Aristotle, 69). Because the good citizen and the good human being are very much opposites, “the excellence of the citizen and of the good man cannot coincide,” in many cases (Aristotle, 66). 'Aristotle's Views on Slavery' Aristotle stated that" ruling and being ruled belong not only among the necessary but also among things advantageous'. What can be interoperated from Aristotle's argument is that rulers and slaves are both necessary and that therefore will always exit whether by direct or indirect rule. According to Aristotle both master and slave can only have a beneficial relation in founded on friendship. “From the hour of their birth, some are marked out for subjection and others for rule." Aristotle’s views on slavery are considered by many one of the 2 most offensive of his ideologies along with his views on the treatment of women. Many argue that it is because of slavery as an institution that the men of Athens had the leisure time to pursue such ventures as art, philosophy, architecture, and sculpture. Aristotle raises the question whether slavery in natural or whether it’s by design. He argues that the master needs the slave just and much as the slave needs the master, and that there should be a mutual respect amongst the two. Aristotle later answers his own question by stating that slavery is natural and that some are meant for subjection. According to Aristotle “certain souls don’t belong in certain bodies; he believes that some men born in strong bodies are weak in mind so they require a ruler. Aristotle states that Powerful bodied slaves are the same as beasts and should be tamed, their physical potential aligned with their master’s brain make for a meaningful relationship. {The argument of this section seems to be that Aristotle condoned all types of slavery because all slavery is natural. Is this Aristotle's position? Make sure you include page numbers with your quotes as well. I want to look at these passages you are citing. And don't forget to proofread! There are some spelling/grammar issues in here. As a group, hopefully you guys aren't just looking over your own individual sections.} 'The Household vs. The City' According to Aristotle the greater good, or the common good, is always the only good, and therefore the best way to go when ever making a decision. Aristotle emphasizes the importants of putting others before one’s self in an all most socialist perspective, illustrating how if any man should have concert let it be concern for the good of the whole city and not just for the well being of his own house hold. Aristotle argues that the city is the common interest and therefore every household that makes up the city should do their part to contribute toward its benefit which is in everyone’s interest. Aristotle argues that no one person should put themselves over the city, and if necessary one should sacrifice his or her own interest for the benefit of the city. No family was considered above the city, nor any particular sector of the community; because “the city is thus prior by nature to the household and to each of us.” – Aristotle 'Regimes' Regimes according to Aristotle are necessary and should be studied. Regimes are determined based on the cities wealth, trade, virtue and families. There are an array of regimes but the most important are Democracy and Oligarchy however, Aristotle also speaks of Aristocracy and Polity. “ In a perfect state the good man is absolutely the same as the good citizen; whereas in other states the good citizen is only good relatively to his own form of government.” (IV.7, 1293b7-9) The citizens of a state establish the regime which naturally shape the characters of the citizens and human beings following the regime. Aristotle believes that the best regime only exist in theory however there should be an effort to govern the structure of law and the principles of the laws. It is necessary that each regime understand the other to make essential changes to further their regimes. Laws should be enacted to understand regimes, not regimes to understand laws. Laws are inherent to a regime, without law there is no regime. 'Democracy' To understand a democracy is to understand that it is not based on the rule of the multitude when in every regime the majority has the power. Democracy satisfies the free establishing them as the majority. Just as any other, a democracy has different forms. Aristotle explains them beginning with equality. " In such a democracy the law says that it is just for the poor to have no more advantage than the rich;and neither should be masters,but both equal” (IV.4, 129b32-34). A democracy does not exist without freedom and equality, which are the basis of the regime. In order to effectively run a democracy it is best that the citizens be equal in the government regardless of wealth or virtue. Democracy unlike any other allow the citizens to elect those in the government. In the times of Aristotle elections were held based u pon the property one man had. “ he who has the required amount of property has a share in the government, but he who loses his property loses his rights.” (IV.4, 1292a40-42). Each Citizen in a democracy that is not ineligible have equal share in the government but must still understand that the law is superior. However Aristotle does state that it is not the law but the multitude, that has the supreme power, which supersedes the law by their decrees. If it is the that law should be supreme and the government officials should judge, however if a democracy is to be ruled by decree then there is no democracy because decrees concern the particulars. 'Oligarchy' In an Oligarchy the wealthy and the individuals born into the wealth and virtue make up the regime.Just as democracy, Oligarchy has different forms. In an Oligarchy property qualifications are high, the poor although they are the majority do not have any share in the government, however the men who acquire property and meet the qualifications are eligible to attain a share. “When there is a qualification for office, but a high one, and the vacancies in the governing body are filled by co-optation. If the election is made out of all the qualified persons,a constitution of this kind inclines to an aristocracy, if out of a privileged class to an oligarchy.” (IV.5, 1292b43-46). Often times Aristocracy is seen as a part of Oligarchy, Aristocracy is associated with virtue and Oligarchy with wealth. Naturally a wealthy man has good virtue given unto him from his family which joins the two.In an Oligarchy the son succeeds the father granting him wealth and virtue. It is not the law that is supreme, it is the magistrate. Aristotle explains this by stating “ Among oligarchies this is what tyranny is among monarchies,and the last-mentioned form of democracy among democracies and in fact this sort of oligarchy received the name of a dynasty.” (IV.4, 1292b7-11 'Aristocracy' Aristotle speaks of Aristocracy but not as in depth as he does with Oligarchy and Democracy. He believes Aristocracy is formed of the best men and not based of men who are good by someones definition. It is the perfect state where excellence is the highest aim. 'Polity ' Polity is the combination of both an Oligarchy and Democracy. Aristotle states that it is impossible for a state to be governed by the worst and be well governed and the same for a poorly governed state to be run by the best. However if good laws are not obeyed they do not constitute a good government. The actual obedience of the citizens to the laws and the goodness of the laws for the citizens to obey defines the government. The combining of Oligarchy and Democracy to form a Polity often times does not go any further than making and effort to combine the freedom of the poor and the wealth of the rich. Therefore there is no true polity, which is why Aristotle refers to it as the “ so-called polity.”